• This essay includes what are Vedas, why Vedas are Apaurusheya, which are Vedangas, which are Veda-upangas, which are the 4 Upa Vedas, what are Sookta, Sootra and Shakha, Structure of the Vedas, Divisions of the Veda, Topics dealt with in Rig Veda and which are the Main Upanishads.

This essay originally appeared in the October 2005 issue of Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams’ illustrated monthly ‘Sapthagiri’. The article was first published on esamskriti in 2010. Now we have reformatted it and presenting with a new title.

Introduction

“The Vedic philosophy encompasses the oldest spiritual texts of any religion in the world, and its subjects are broad and numerous. Its more advanced concepts can be difficult for even the greatest scholars to fathom. The Vedic literature discusses many types of philosophical viewpoints, and studying some of them will let us see that many of the concepts that we accept as new today are nothing more than parts of the ancient Vedic knowledge that had been dealt with and thoroughly understood thousands of years ago. Thus, there are not many ideas that are really new at all. The main purpose of the Vedic literature is to establish knowledge of the Absolute Truth and the process for attaining the highest levels of self-realization.”-Stephen Knapp

Thus a study of the Vedas is nothing but a search for the Truth, nothing but understanding ourselves, nothing but to know why we are born in this world and where we will be going when we drop this physical body.  The purpose of the study is to discover and understand the truth behind the phenomenal universe and human existence. According to our ancient wisdom this study is a joint venture between the student and the teacher with full mutual trust and goodwill to find out an answer to the fundamental question of the purpose of our existence.

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan says that the Vedas are the earliest documents of the human mind that we possess. They are the most ancient literary monuments of the human race.

The word ‘Veda’ means to know implying that the subject of the Vedas is Knowledge. Here knowledge does not mean facts about the external world like physics or chemistry. It means the knowledge of the eternal, sacred, spiritual wisdom. It is about the nature of man himself. It tells him who he/she really is. It is the knowledge of the changeless and Supreme Reality behind the ever-changing objective world of men and matter.

The texts containing this knowledge have no authorship, no time frame within which they had been authored. They are called Apaurusheya meaning that they are not authored by any Purusha or human mind. They were revealed to the Rishis or Seers - the Drashtas, men of wisdom, during the depths of their meditation. These sages were merely the instruments of God to spread His words.

Their utterances were called Mantras which were not the result of any intuition but were the result of Divine Vision which is called ‘Mantra Drishti’. Their inner and outer meanings were really known only to those to whom they were revealed. Hence, none can challenge them on grounds of reason or logic. There is no final authority beyond the Vedas; in today’s management jargon the buck stops at the table of the Vedas.

The Upanishads form perhaps the most important part of the Vedas on which the edifice of the ‘Shad Darshanas’ or the six systems of the Hindu Philosophy have been built up. The mystical teachings of the Upanishads are the essence of the Vedic Hindu Religion and Philosophy. The Upanishads are the crest jewels - choodamani – of the Vedas.

Historicity and Preservation of the Vedas

The modern researchers are still struggling to fix up the exact period of the Vedas and there is no final conclusion as yet. Their conclusions differ as widely as 25000 years B.C. to 1000 years B.C. However, the general consensus among most of the Indian scholars is to consider the Mohenjadaro-Harappa culture i.e. about 3000 B.C. to be the later phase of Vedic culture. This brings us to conclude that the date of the Rig-Veda, considered as the earliest in human history, is around 10,000 B.C.

The words DRSHTI and SRUTI – seeing and hearing, used in describing the Vedas signify their very basic revelatory nature. For several centuries, the Vedas had to be committed to memory and were passed on orally from generation to generation. As they were preserved to posterity through hearing they are termed as ‘Sruti’, what is heard. Without the use of writing a fool-proof method was used to chant each Mantra in various patterns and combinations such as Pada Patha, Krama Patha, Jata Patha and Ghana Patha to prevent any errors creeping into the Vedas. The modes of chanting prescribe the basics like how much time one has to take for reciting a word, how to regulate breathing while reciting so that required vibrations are produced in the specific parts of the body which will yield pure word-sound.

Codification of the Vedas                                                 

It is believed that the potency of the Vedas started decaying with the departure of Bhagawan Sri Krishna from this world. Even this was considered to be a Divine Plan for the Kali Yuga as per which only a part of the glory and effulgence of the Vedas is to be left over from total extinction.

This Divine Arrangement could be put through the agency of Sage Veda Vyasa. This sage was then not known under this name. His name was Dwaipayana as he was born in an island (Dweepa). He was considered as a manifestation of Bhagawan Sri Krishna himself for fulfilling a specific purpose in this world and hence he was known as Krishna Dwaipayana. He was also known as Badarayana.

The word ’Vyasa’ means an essay or composition. It also means dealing with a matter subject wise and classifying it suitably. As Krishna Dwaipayana did all these tasks for the proper study and understanding of the Vedas he became famous as Sage Veda Vyasa. His contribution to the codification of the Vedas is so great that he is more widely known as Veda Vyasa than by any other name. Sage Veda Vyasa collected all the Mantras in existence during his period, edited, codified and organized them into four groups which he taught to his four chief disciples. These are as under:

Table 1 Classification of the Vedas    

Vedic Texts - Why 4 Vedas

The Vedas were mainly utilized in the performance of Yajnas (sacrifices) which were the most common form of early Vedic religion. Such uses of the Veda led to its division based upon the convenience of the chief priests conducting the sacrifices.

All the hymns used by the priest whose function was to invoke the deities to the sacrifice (who is called Hotra) became the Rig Veda. The part of the Veda used by the chief executor of the sacrificial rites (called Adhvaryu) formed Yajur Veda. Collection of all the musical chants to be sung by the concerned priest (called Udgatir, the singer) became Sama Veda. The rest of the hymns dealing with a variety of topics was called Atharva Veda which was assigned to a priest considered as the supervisor over the whole process of sacrifice (called Brahma).

Auxiliary and Subsidiary Texts of the Vedas

Because of the difficulty in understanding the Vedas, the sages evolved a system of auxiliaries to the Vedas known as I.Vedangas, II.Veda-Upangas both meaning the limbs of the Vedas, and III. Upa-Vedas meaning subsidiary parts of the Vedas,

1. Vedangas - They are six in number viz.

Table 2 VEDANGA

II. Veda-Upangas

These are the six systems of Hindu philosophy known as Shad Darsanas.

Table 3 Shad Darshana of Six Systems of Hindu Philosophy

C. Upa Vedas - They are called the subsidiary Vedas, are 4 in number.

                    Table 4 UPA VEDA or Subsidiary Vedas

Vedas are thus a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely spiritual but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth.

Divisions in each Veda                                             

The contents of the Vedas are in the form of a collection of mantras. The word Mantra means ‘that which protects when repeated and reflected upon’.

The Rig Veda mantras are called ‘Rik’ meaning hymns or stanzas of verses metrically set to convey definite meaning. The Sama Veda mantras are called ‘Saman’ meaning chants while Yajur Veda mantras are called ‘Yajus’ meaning sacrificial sentences.

These collections are called Samhitas. They bring out the purport of a Veda in the shape of mantras, methodically arranged. Samhita means that which is collected and arranged.

Each Veda is also divided into Samhita and Brahmana. The Brahmana includes within itself Aranyaka and Upanishad. Thus, the division of the Vedas into these four categories suitable to the four stages of human life is as under:

                    Table 5 Divisions of the Vedas

a. Samhita

It is the name given to the collection of mantras or hymns and prayers in praise of Deities for attaining prosperity here and happiness hereafter.

Samhita portion is considered as the principal text of a Veda. This portion is mainly meant for Brahmacharis, those who are in the first stage of their lives.

b. Brahmana

This portion of a Veda guides people in the performance of Vedic Karmas or sacrificial rituals; they are the prose explanations of the method of using the mantras in the Yajnas and other rituals.

Brahmana is suitable for the householders, those belonging to the second stage in life.

c. Aranyaka

When one seeks the solitude of the forests (Aranya) for further concentration, the physical performance of Yajnas will be impracticable for various reasons more so due to old age.

The Aranyaka portion is addressed to the people of that category offering a substitute for rituals. They teach methods of meditation based upon symbolical interpretations of sacrificial rites. It is a process of performing Yajnas and sacrifices at the mental level.

For e.g. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad starts with such analytical mental performance of Aswamedha Yajna. The Aranyakas are intended for the Vanaprasthas or people who prepare themselves for the last stage in life i.e. Sanyasa.

Aranyakas form the transition link between the ritual of the Brahmanas and the philosophy of the Upanishads.

d. Upanishads

The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas which discuss philosophical issues. They are the essence of the Vedas containing their knowledge aspects. The philosophy of the Upanishads occupies the highest pedestal in the spiritual knowledge. They speak about the identity of the Supreme Eternal Soul, the Brahman, the individual soul, the Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara.

As this is the core portion of the Vedas we shall be devoting more time on this topic later. Dr. Radhakrishnan puts it like this. “While the hymns or Samhitas are the creation of the poets, the Brahmanas are the work of the priests; the Upanishads are the meditations of the philosophers. The flow of thought from the Samhitas to Brahmanas to Aranyakas to Upanishads is the indication of the process of evolution of Hindu religion over the centuries.”

Thus we have in the Vedas portions dealing with the action or performance of rituals -. Karma Kanda, portions dealing with the method of worship and meditation - Upasana Kanda and lastly the portion dealing with the Highest knowledge, the knowledge of Brahman - Jnana Kanda. Roughly speaking, the Samhitas and Brahmanas constitute Karma Kanda, the Aranyakas the Upasana Kanda and the Upanishads the Jnana Kanda.

Sookta, Sootra and Shakha

Before going further we should be aware of what is meant by Sooktas, Sootras and Shakhas as we come across these terms frequently in the Vedic literature,

Sookta

The whole of the Rig Veda Samhita is in the form of verses. They are also called Rik or hymns in praise of different Devatas. In the later age these verses or Riks come to be called as Slokas or stanzas. Each Rik is a mantra and a number of Riks or mantras constitute a Sookta - examples are the popular Purusha Sooktam, Narayana Sooktam, Sri Sooktam etc.

Sootra

Sootras are aphorisms or declarations using minimum number of words to project a maximum dimension of thought. It is a short formula using the least possible number of letters giving no room for any ambiguity to express a sublime philosophic thought. Thus, it contains the very essence of the thought and is faultless in its nature.

The best example is the famous Brahma Sootra, also known as Vedanta Sootra or Sariraka Sootra, which contains in a mystifying way the doctrines spelt out in the Upanishads. Because of their cryptic nature, Bhashyas or commentaries are necessary to understand Sootras. The names of other important Sootras are Patanjali Yoga Sootra, Narada Bhakti Sootra, Shandilya Bhakti Sootra, Ashtadhyayi of Panini etc. In fact the six Vedangas mentioned above and the six systems of Hindu philosophy - Shad Darshanas form the most important twelve sets of Sootra literature of Hinduism.

Shakha - its plan and purpose

The Samhitas in course of time branched off leading to the formation of Shakhas or recensions. The branching off of the Vedic traditions took place as a result of several factors such as geographical location of the priests, ritual specialization and doctrinal disputes.

Each of the principal sages had several disciples. These disciples or their successors might have done some editing of the Vedic mantras to suit the rites they were required to perform and the geographical locations where they were placed over which the local culture also must have had its influence. Another reason given for the division of Vedas into many Shakhas is the vastness of the subject to be covered by a student for achieving his spiritual goal.

The scheme of Vedic learning is first studying and recitation of the hymns (Samhita) followed by performance of Yajnas (Brahmana), then an enquiry into the rationale behind the performance of these Yajnas (Aranyaka) and lastly, an enquiry into ‘Paramatma Tattwa’ and attaining its actual experience (Upanishad).

Since mastering these tasks in their entirety is an almost impossible job, a method in the form of Shakhas of the Vedas was evolved whereby only the optimum required for each purpose was taught. Each Shakha thus contains that many mantras under each category of Samhita, Brahmona, Aranyaka and Upanishad as would enable a seeker to accomplish liberation or Moksha

Structure of the Vedas                                             

We will now enter into the inner sanctum sanctorum of the Vedas and look at the treasures contained therein.

It is to be born in mind here that conventionally speaking, it is the Samhita that is indicated when we use the word Veda. Rig Veda means Rig Veda Samhita. So also is the case with the other Vedas. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads have independent names.

1. Rig Veda Samhita

Of all the four Vedic Samhitas, the Rg. Veda Samhita is the oldest and occupies a pride of place in the Vedic literature. The whole of Rig Veda Samhita is in the form of verse. It is a collection of Sooktas or hymns revealed to various Rishis at different periods of time. Hence a variety of ideas, styles of language, grammar, historical and cultural factors are found here. This Samhita contains masterpieces of poetic compositions like the famous Purusha Sooktam and the morning prayers to Ushas, the goddess of dawn. It was said to have 21 Shakhas but now only five of them are known to exist.

According to the ancient tradition, the whole Rig Samhita has been divided into 10 Mandalas. The Mandalas are subdivided into Anuvakas, the Anuvakas into Sooktas and Sooktas into mantras as follows.

Rig Veda contains 10552 mantras spread over 1028 Sooktas and 85 Anuvakas in 10 Mandalas. The topics dealt with in the Rig Veda Samhita can be classified into three groups.

The first group is in praise of the deities like Agni, lndra, Varuna, Mitra and others. The Vedic deities numbering 33 are assigned to the three regions of the universe viz. earth (Prithvi), heaven (Dyaus) and intermediary space (Antariksha). Although these deities appear as personifications of forces of nature, they are actually different facets of Brahman, the Only One Supreme Reality. The famous mantra on this point ‘ekam sat viprah bahudha vadanti’ meaning ‘Truth is one, sage’s call it by various names’ occurs in this Samhita.

The second group is concerned with philosophical speculations like the origin of the Universe and the real nature of human beings. Although the Samhita is a book of laudatory hymns still all the later ideas of Vedanta including Jnana and Bhakti are found therein at least in a rudimentary form. However, advocacy of worship of God with form and qualities - Sagunoposona - is predominant.

The proclamation contained in various mantras show that it teaches eka-devata-vada or monotheism and not polytheism. For example, the Samhita states that God creates the world out of Himself and rules over it; He is omnipresent (present everywhere), omnipotent (all powerful) and omniscient (all knowing), He is ever perfect, infinitely compassionate, easily approachable by the devotees and He grants us immortality. But the idea about actual process of creation of the universe finds a place only in the later Vedantic  literature i.e. the Upanishads.

The third group deals with several secular subjects like marriage, war etc., which show the nature of society of those times. A just and equitable social order existed. However, social life was conditioned by spiritual consciousness. There was Samanvaya or harmony of life here and hereafter. Satya (truth) and Dharma (righteousness) are glorified and Amritatva (immortality) as the goal of life was accepted.

The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads of this Veda are -

1. Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmanas

2. Aitareya and Sankhyayana Aranyakas and

3. Aitareya and Kausitaki Upanishads

2. Yajur Veda Samhita

It is a collection of Yajus or the mantras in prose which give procedural details to the Adhvaryu priest for the proper performance of Yajnas. The popular hymn in praise of Lord Siva - Sri Rudraprasna – finds a place in this Veda. The other famous prayer Purusha Sooktam also occurs here with some modifications.

Yajur Veda Samhita is in two parts viz. Krishna Yajurveda and Shukia Yaiurveda. Krishna Yajurveda was taught by sage Vaishampayana. It is considered older than the Shukla Yajurveda. Today a vast majority follow the Yajur Veda. Krishna Yajurveda is common in the South and Shukla Yajurveda in the North.

Krishna Yajurveda Samhita is said to have contained 85 Shakhas but only four of them are available now out of which the Taittiriya Samhita is widely prevalent especially in South Jndia. It deals with detailed descriptions of sacrifices like Rajasuya, Vajapeya, Somayaga etc. The other three Shakhas are not so well known though they also deal with similar sacrifices.

Related to this Samhita are 1. Taittiriya Brahmana, 2. Taittiriya and Maitrayani Aranyakas and 3. Taittiriya, Katha, Swetaswatara, Maitrayani and Moha Narayana Upanishads.

Shukla Yajurveda Samhita is said to have been brought to the knowledge of the World by the famous sage Yajnavalkya from Vaajasani which means the Sun God. Hence, it is also known as Vajasneyi Samhita, This is entirely in verse form.

Out of 17 Shakhas of this Samhita said to hove been existed; only two viz. Kanva and Madhyandina Shakhas are presently existing. The former is common in South India while the latter is popular in the North. This Samhita also deals mainly with Yajnas like Agnishtoma.

Related to this Samhita are 1. Satapatha Brahmana. This is a work extensively serving as a general guide to all the Vedas. 2. Brhad-Aranyaka and 3. Brhadaraanyokoponishad and Isavasyopanishad.

3. Samaveda Samhita

Samaveda Samhita is the highly commended scripture of Hinduism. However, it is not considered as an independent work. All the mantras of the Rig Veda which are useful to Udgatir priest for chanting in the Yajnas to ensure the grace of the Gods have been brought together in this Veda. ‘SA’ means a mantra of the Rig Veda, ‘AMA’ means musical notes.

Hence, a Saman is a mantra of the Rig Veda set to music. The word Saama also means that which brings peace to the mind. Although this Veda is said to have 1000 Shakhas only three are available now.

Unlike the mantras of the other three Vedas, the mantras of Samaveda are simply known as Saman having seven svaras or musical scales. Therefore, Saama Gana or singing of hymns as per the rules of Sama Veda is said to be the basis and source of the seven svaras or notes fundamental to the Indian music systems.

The special virtue of Sama Veda is that although its mantras are from the Rig Veda they are set to music which is greatly conductive to the spiritual evolution of a human being and to qualify oneself for receiving the grace of the Gods.

Hence, Sri Krishna says in the Gita (Ch.10 Verse 22) ‘vedaanaam saamavedosmi’ meaning ‘among the Vedas I am the Sama Veda’. Similarly, in the Lalita Sahasranama, one of the epithets used to describe the Divine Mother is ‘Saama Gaana Priye’ meaning one who is pleased with the recital of Saman.

Affiliated to this Samhita are 1. Out of nine Brahmanas of this Veda Tandya Maha Brahmana is the biggest and most important. 2. Only one Aranyaka of this Samhita is available which is called Talavakara or Jaiminiya Aranyaka. 3. The well-known Chandogya Upanishad and the Kenopanishad, which is also known as Talavakaropanishad, are from this Veda.

4. Atharva Veda Samhita

Atharva means purohit or pundit. This Veda is said to have been brought to light by a Sage called Atharvan and hence this name. This is also called Brahma Veda because it is assigned to the Brahma priest who supervises the conduct of the Yajnas. The mantras in this Veda are both in prose and verse forms,

As the Atharva Veda Samhita has some special features it stands apart from the other three Vedas. It deals more with things here and now than with the hereafter and the sacrifices are utilized as a means to them.

This Veda contains many types of mantras designed to ward off evils and hardship as also to destroy enemies. Besides this it deals with diseases and their cure, rites for prolonging life, for fulfilling one’s desires, construction activities, trade and commerce, statecraft, defense systems of the country etc.

Many hymns deal with creation and emergence of the Universe. The hymn extolling the wonder of creation is called Prithvi Sooktam. Amidst these mundane subjects high philosophical ideas are also found in this Veda. The literary style of this Veda is highly sophisticated.

Most of the Shakhas of Atharva Veda are lost. Out of the nine Shakhas known to have existed under this Samhita only two are available now. They are Pippalada and Saunaka. Only one Brahmana called Gopatha Brahmana has been discovered. No Aranyaka of this Veda has come to light so far.

There are a number of Upanishads which are associated with this Veda. The three well known Upanishads viz. Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya as also the Kaivalya Upanishad belong to this Veda.

Commentaries on the Vedas                                                        

As the Vedic literature is difficult to understand, their Bhashyas or commentaries come to our aid in bringing out their inner meanings. Over the centuries there has been a galaxy of commentators on Vedas among whom Sayanacharya of the 14th century holds a unique place both in terms of the outstanding quality of his works and their sheer volume.

UPANISHADS

After having an aerial view of the Vedas and the place of the Upanishads in them we can venture to go deeper to fathom the depths of the Upanishads.

If there is one mass of scriptures in the world that has sustained the spiritual thinking over the millennia, it is the Upanishads. All the schools of thought, religious movements that flourished in the later periods in Indian history have been a byproduct of the Upanishadic thinking. They gained respectability and acceptance only because they followed the footprints of the Upanishads.

Meaning of the word ‘Upanishad’

Several meanings of the word Upanishad have been given by the scholars. Sankara interprets this word to mean knowledge of God implying that the central theme of the Upanishads is that knowledge which destroys ignorance of man and leads him to Brahman’.

This definition conveys three aspects of divine knowledge or wisdom which 1. Loosens the bond of Samsara of a being. 2. Destroys his inborn ignorance (Ajnana) of his real nature and 3. Leads him to Brahman or God, the Absolute.

Etymologically the word ‘Upanishad’ means that which is taught to the pupils sitting at the feet of their teachers. Thus the Upanishads are books of wisdom taught by the accomplished teachers to the deserving students.

Actually the philosophy of the Upanishads was treated as Rahasya or Guhya or confidential not meant as a popular philosophy for an average person. The reason is the common saying that half-knowledge is dangerous meaning thereby that the highest wisdom could he misunderstood by those who are not mature enough to absorb its deeper significance.

The initial hesitation of Yama, the Lord of Death, to part with the highest knowledge to Nachiketa till he proved his worthiness illustrates this point He offered the young Nachiketa all kinds of temptations to divert his attention. But Nachiketa stood the test successfully concentrating on his goal of obtaining the secret knowledge. Ultimately, Lord Yama had to relent and began His exposition which is the subject matter of the Kathopanishad.

Since the Upanishads form the concluding portion of each of the Vedas they are often spoken of as Vedanta i.e. the end or Anta of the Vedas. The Upanishads are the primary texts of Vedanta and in the common parlance, the word Upanishad itself came to mean Vedanta Philosophy.

Number and Classification

The number of works that go by the name Upanishad and available today in print exceeds 200. The Muktikopanishad gives a list of 108 Upanishads. However, the principal Upanishads are accepted to be those which Adi Sankaracharya (788 and 820 A.D.) chose to comment upon.

Sankara was the earliest commentator on the Upanishads. He chose only 10 Upanishads for his commentaries. According to some scholars he commented upon 11 Upanishads. He refers to four more Upanishads in his commentary on Brahma Sutra.

Considering the ones chosen by him for commenting and as reference material as the most ancient and authentic, they are termed as major or principal Upanishads. We may list them as follows –

Table 6 Major Upanishads

Dr S Radhakrishnan added four more Upanishads namely Maitri Upanishad, Subaala Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad and Vajrasuchika Upanishad.

Chronologically speaking, some scholars classify the Upanishads into three groups belonging to the three periods to which they are attributed.

The first and the oldest group Consists of six Upanishads headed by the Brhadaranyaka followed by the Chandogya. Both these Upanishads are written in prose and both are acknowledged as the most authoritative presentation of the central doctrines of the Upanishads. The other four in this group are the Taittiriya, Aitareya, Kaushitaki and Kena Upanishads.

The second group, mostly in verse form set to standard metres, comprises five Upanishads viz, the Katha, Isa, Shvetasvatara, Mundaka and Mahanarayana.

In the third group we return to prose which consists of three texts viz. Prasna, Mandukya and Maitri or Maitrayani Upanishads.

Most of the Upanishads outside the above list belong to a later era of Indian culture, written mainly to propagate specific cults or sects; Even then, they made a considerable contribution to the religion and ethics of the times and developed Vedantic spirit among the people. They are called minor Upanishads and grouped together in six categories i.e.

The Vedanta Upanishads follow the lines of major Upanishads in their principles. Siva, Sakta and Vaishnava Upanishads propagate the cults of Siva, Sakti and Vishnu respectively. The Yoga Upanishads deal with Hatha Yoga and Raja Yoga based on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra and other works. Sanyasa Upanishads deal exclusively with Monasticism, its ideals, practices, rules and regulations.

Spread of Upanishads to other countries 

Another important fact in this connection is about the spread of Upanishads to the rest of the world particularly to the West. A collection of 50 Upanishads was translated from Sanskrit to Persian in the year 1656 under the name of Oupnek’hat at the instance of Sultan Mohammed Dara Shukoh son of the Moghal King, Shahjehan.

This Persian work was later translated into Latin in 1801-1802. Thereafter, German scholars translated the Latin version into German from where it was taken to the shores of England by others like Bohtlingk and Deussen. Max Muller, who lived between 1823 and 1900 AD, selected 12 major Upanishcids in his Sacred Books of the East Series. These were published in two volumes in 1879 and 1884.

Paul Deussen, another German scholar wrote two masterpieces on the Upanishads in German which were translated into English later. His works are entitled ‘The Philosophy of the Upanishads’ translated into English by Rev. AS. Geden and ‘Sixty Upanishads of the Veda’ in two volumes translated into English by Professors V.M. Bedekar and G.B. Palsule of Pune.

The well noted work by an Englishman is ‘The Thirteen Principal Upanishads’ by Robert Earnest Hume.

Commentaries on the Upanishads

By its very definition Upanishads are works of deep thoughts requiring special efforts and skill to understand. The language used is archaic dating back thousands of years. Because of their affiliation with sacrificial and ritualistic religion, their concepts are not easily intelligible to us, removed as we are, by millennia from those ideas. Hence it is impossible for any one to understand them much less get consistent understanding of them without an authoritative commentary.

Sankara was the earliest and the first to comment upon the Upanishads. It goes to the eternal credit of Sankara that through his masterly commentaries he brought out the Upanishads from obscurity and made them accessible and intelligible to a wider audience. His followers wrote explanatory works on Sankara’s commentaries that became the source books of Hindu philosophy.

Ramanuja who lived between 1017 and 1137 AD, did not comment on any of the Upanishads but had enriched some of their concepts in his Vedantasangraha. His follower Rangaramanuja completed the task by commenting on all the major Upanishads.

Madhvacharya who lived between 1197 and 1276 AD wrote brief commentaries on all the ten ancient Upanishads upon which his followers had also written explanatory studies.

Among the Upanishads, Isavasyopanishad attracted the attention of the maximum number of scholars and sages who had commented upon it over the centuries.

Present Position

The audience to the Upanishads is ever growing aided by the contributions of subsequent commentators, thinkers and sages. In the present age Swamijis like Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Sivananda, Chinmayananda and Dayananda did yeoman service for spreading the knowledge of Upanishads across the globe particularly in the U.S.A. Nowadays, thanks to the modern science of information technology the whole world has become a receptive audience to the knowledge of Vedanta disseminated through the Internet.

Glory to the Vedas! Glory to the Upanishads! Harih Om!

To read all Commentaries on the Upanishads