• Over 23 points, this essay briefly covers the various stages of the evolution of Buddhism in India starting from Buddha to about 12th century A.D. Triend to provide answers to commonly asked questions. 

We earlier shared Different Schools of Buddhism that included briefly early life of Buddha, four Buddhist Councils and different schools in Buddhism.

An AI search indicated stages of evolution. Briefly they were Origin (5-6^th century BCE), Expansion (3^rd BCE), Rise of Schools (1^st BCE-8^th CE), Monastic Centres (750-1200 CE) and Decline (post 12^th century CE).

This compilation presents its evolution, marking key developments and putting dates where available. To do so, referred to the History and Culture of Indian People volumes 2, 3, 4, 5 published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Read on.

1. Birth of Buddha – around 563 BCE at Lumbini. 

2. Attaining Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya at 598 or 623 BCE.

3. First Sermon at Sarnath – known today as Dhamek Stupa, its original name according to a 1029 A.D. inscription was ‘Dharma Chakra Stupa’.

4. Buddha gave up his body – around 483 BCE at Kushinagar. 

Major places associated with Buddha. Bodh Gaya 2012. 

5. Noble Truths and Samkhya

The 4 Noble Truths of Buddhism were echoes of Rishi Kapila’s original wisdom according to former scholar President Dr. Radhakrishnan writings in Indian Philosophy (1923). “The profound four-fold framework that Sage Kapila had already crystallized in the Samkhyapravacanabhasya – from the recognition of suffering, to the path of liberation, through the subtle understanding of prakrti and purusha, to the supreme discriminating wisdom – would later find a simplified reflection in Buddhist teachings.”  Read  Samkhya and Buddhism

6. First Buddhist Council, Rajgir, 487 BCE

“Several important resolutions were adopted at this council to preserve Buddha’s teachings.” 2

7. Second Buddhist Council, Vaishali, App 4^th century BCE

PhD Scholar Amit Narwade wrote, “The primary purpose of this council was to resolve disputes concerning ten controversial monastic practices, most of which were related to the interpretation and observance of the Vinaya.” 2

It was for the first time that one knew of the division between two monk groups known as the easterners and westerners. The former lived at Vaishali/Pataliputra and the latter at Kausambi/Patheyya and Avanti (Ujjain). 1 Pg 378

After this initial split, several Buddhist schools later emerged. The Theravada got divided into eleven sects and the Achariyavada into seven, all Hinayanists. The oldest and most orthodox sect was Thervada (=Sans. Sthaviravada), with its founder from Ujjain adopted Pali as the language of its Pitaka. It was propagated in Ceylon. The other important branch of Thervada was the Sarvastivada, the language of its Pitaka was Sanskrit. It became popular all over North India and made its way to Central Asia, China. Mahasanghika sect became popular in Andhra Pradesh at Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda. 1 Pg. 379-80

Buddhism was not a single monastic organization two centuries after Buddha’s death. Instead, it had numerous sects growing independently in India.

8. Third Buddhist Council, Pataliputra, 3^rd century BCE under Ashoka

“The principal objective of this council was to purify the Saṅgha by eliminating false monks and resolving doctrinal confusion.” 2  By purification Ashoka meant removal from the Sangha of non-Theravadins. 1 Pg. 382.

9. Fourth Buddhist Council, Kashmir

“Is understood differently within various Buddhist traditions. The session synchronises with the emergence of Mahayanism.” 2

Dhameka Stupa, Sarnath. Original name ‘Dharma Chakra Stupa’.

10. Teachings called Hinayana were taught by Buddha, while the teachings known as Mahayana developed later, after his death, through the reflections and interpretations by his disciples.

Hinayana emphasizes Buddha’s practical and experiential (phenomenological) teachings, whereas Mahayana expresses the deeper, introspective understanding of reality attributed to the Buddha.

11. Theravada, also referred by its critics as Hinayana (HIN-small vehicle); 3^rd century BCE. Mahāyāna (MAH-large vehicle) started around 1^st century A.D.

HIN goal self-realization of individual. They were semi-realists. The Hinayanists at first conceived of Buddha as an omniscient human being and later as superior to all beings. A Hinayist is called a Sravaka, aims for Arhathood and a Mahayanist is a Bodhisattva, aims for Buddhahood. In Hinayana, there were no deities. 5 Pg. 374-379

MAH goal is self-realization of all beings. Mahayanist were negativists or idealists. They regarded Buddha as eternal without origin and decay. 5 Pg. 375-378. Unlike Hinayana, MAH did not insist on a person becoming a monk or nun.

The first condition that a Mahayanist had to fulfil was to take the vow of dedicating one’s own self to the service of others i.e. development of Bodhi-Chitta. His next duty was to commence fulfilling the six paramitas (perfections in virtues) across many lives.

Mahayana stressed on Karuna or compassion unlike Hinayana. In Hinayana, the final goal was attainment of Arhathood, dedication to personal liberation. The object of Karuna is to stimulate one to make use of one’s perfect knowledge in missionary activities for the benefit of the suffering world. 6A Pg. 405

The most popular Bodhisattvas were Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, Vajrapani and Maitreya. In Mahayana a large number of deities were included.

12. Tantrayāna 3^rd to 7^th centuries BCE.

In the 5-6^th century A.D. with the gradual decline of Buddhist philosophical scholarship, the mantraic literature and ritualistic worship revived with the appearance of a number of distinguished Tantric sadhakas.

In Vajrayana, the pantheon became large with deities of every description.  Within the fold of Vajrayana there arose, about the 10^th century A.D., a school known as Kalachakra-yana. The supreme deity is called Lord Sri-Kalachakra. 6A Pg. 412 Its sphere of influence was limited to Bengal, South Bihar and Kashmir. 

Padmapani Avalokitesvara. Gandhara School. Mid-7th century. By Namrata Wakhloo.

13. The Four Philosophical Schools of Buddhism 

Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism were divided into four speculative schools. The former into Vaibhasikas (Kashmir and Gandhara) and Sautrantika. The latter into Madhyamika (founder Nagarjuna who lived about 1^st century A.D.) and Yogacharya (founded by Maitreyanatha, lived in Ayodhya 270-350 A.D.) 5 Pg. 390. Kumarajiva followed Madhyamika school and propagated this system of thought in China in 5^th century A.D.).

14. Introduction of Murty of Buddha - around 1^st century A.D.

Pranams. Sukhothai Historical Park, Thailand. Pic by Benoy K Behl.

Earlier devotees worshipped symbols.1 Pg. 387 This paved the way for the advent of Mahayanism.

15. Mahayana Buddhism emerged around 5 centuries after Buddha death

Mahayana Buddhism originated around the 1^st century B.C. in undivided Andhra Pradesh. It spread across India 1-2^nd century A.D. 1 Pg. 388 Nagarjuna (Brahmin by birth) was one of the key thinkers who shaped Mahayana thought. 

For simplicity Hinayana relates to Thervada that preserves Buddha’s original teachings. “Mahāyāna Buddhism emerged about five centuries after the Buddha’s death. It represented Buddhism as a compassionate, socially engaged, and accessible tradition that welcomed lay participation.”

“A defining feature of Mahāyāna is the introduction of a new spiritual ideal—the Bodhisattva. A Bodhisattva is an “Awakening Being”. The Bodhisattva aims to achieve liberation for the benefit of all human beings. “The development of celestial Bodhisattvas such as Avalokiteśvara further encouraged devotional practices, including prayer and worship.”

16. Doctrinal Changes-Emergence of Tantrikism 320 to 750 A.D.

This part is verbatim from History and Culture of Indian People Volume 4.

During this period original philosophical principles were superimposed by an esoteric Yogic system, combined with endless rituals and forms of worship, that it could hardly be called Buddhism any longer. The religion lost itself in the maze of mysticism and was engulfed by a host of mudras, mandalas, kriyas and charyas. The mission of Buddha was to wean away the Indian mind from the blind faith in the efficacy of worship and rituals passed into oblivion, and the learning of the mind towards worship of divinities and veneration for rituals and mystical utterances. 6 Pg. 259-260

The earliest literature which may be called a precursor of Tantra was known as the Dharanas and formed a part of the Mahayana-sutras- about 4^th century A.D. It is text devoted to Avalokitesvara who with TARA formed the chief deities of worship in the early Tantra literature. The utterance of the Dharanas or Mantrapadas was preceded and followed by an elaborate ritualistic worship of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and other deities. 6 Pg. 261

In the Karandvyuha (4^th century A.D.) we come across for the first time the well- known mantra ‘Om madipadme hum’. Repetition of these words led to attainment of the truth. 

Up to 4^th century A.D., Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara was the chief object of worship and goddess Tara not yet included in the Buddhist pantheon. 6 Pg. 262

It is from the 7^th century A.D. that we find exuberance of Tara-sotras and goddess Tara raised to the mothership of all Buddhas and a companion of Avalokitesvara. This is almost like Siva Sakti in concept.  6 Pg. 263

8 Tara in Bodh Gaya Temple. 2012.

The earliest texts dealing with Tantrik Buddhism are Manjusrimulakalpa and Guhyasamaja. The latter deals with yoga and mandalas, gives exposition of the truth which is the Vajra or oneness of the Universe. The former gives an exposition of mudras, mandalas, mantras, kriyas and charyas. There is a section devoted to directions for drawing pictures of different Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Taras etc.

Difference between Tantrikism and Mahayanism (Madhyamika-Yogacharya systems) was in the ways and methods of realizing the highest truth. The former takes the aid of mudras, mandalas and mantras and even takes recourse to hatha-yoga.  

17. Tibetan Buddhism - Vajrayana

“While the ideal figures of earlier traditions are the arhat (Hīnayāna) and the bodhisattva (Mahayana), Tantra upholds the siddha, or accomplished adept, as its spiritual ideal. 2

“Our main knowledge of Buddhist Tantra comes from Tibet, where it was well preserved, especially in the Gelugpa tradition.” 2 The universities of eastern India and Kashmir began genial centre of the cultivation of Tibetan. Tibetan Buddhist literature was due to contribution of both Indian scholars and Tibetans.

Padmasambhava established Vajrayana form of Buddhism in Tibet in the 8^th century. The primitive religion of Tibet, before introduction of Buddhism was Bon (Phon). RKM Cultural Heritage of India Vol 1 Pg. 501. Guru Padmasambhava said to have taken a giant leap from Rewalsar Lake (Himachal) to Tibet.

Atisa Dipankara (11^th century) of Bengal is considered possibly the most outstanding personality in the Buddhist world after Nagarjuna. He spent 13 years in Tibet. 6A Pg 416-18 The Gelugpa sect is the dominant sect in Tibet, was founded in the 14^th century, in known as the School of the Virtuous. Its followers wear yellow caps. RKM

Kashmir was another vigorous centre of Buddhism. When Buddhism was persecuted in Tibet by Glan-dar-ma, it was revived mostly by Kashmiri sramanas. Also, a number of sramanas who went over to China in the 10-11^th centuries belonged to Kashmir. 6A Pg 419

Buddhism found a last refuge in Nepal. “Japan received Buddhism from China through Korea in 552 A.D.” RKM Vol 1 Pg. 498

Sanchi Stupa.

18. Who built Sanchi Stupa?

Pic by Benoy K Behl. 

Ashoka built Stupa 1 or Great Stupa. It was enlarged by Sungas (Hindus-185 BC-73 AD). Gateway built in first century BC by Satvahanas (Hindus). During Gupta period, several temples were built/sculptures added. Construction continued up to 12^th century. Read  Who built Sanchi Stupa

19. Bodh Gaya Mandir was completed by the Gupta Kings around 7^th century. Temple destroyed by Turkish invaders in early 13^th century. Senior journalist wrote Sandhya Jain wrote, “Around 1590 a Saivite saint took charge of the Mahavira. In 1883, Sir Alexander Cunningham, J.D.M. Beglar and Dr Rajendra Lal Mitra renovated the temple on scientific lines.”

20. Pala rulers of modern day Bengal and Bihar were Buddhist. During their four century rule Buddhist found a safe refuge after it ceased to have any footing in other parts of India barring Kashmir etc.

First Pala ruler Gopala revived Nalanda. During his rule Odantapuri monastery was built. The great philosopher Santarakshita lived during his reign and went to Tibet, stayed there up to 762 A.D. There he was called Pandita Bodhisattva. The next king Dharmapala founded the Vikramasila monastery in Bihar where several Sanskrit texts were translated into Tibetan.

Ganapati is present in the Mahayana pantheon. He is generally depicted as being trampled down under the feet of such goddesses as Aparnajita and Parnasavari.

21. The ideas of the Maitreya Buddha and the Jataka tradition developed slowly within Buddhism as part of its natural historical and doctrinal growth.

Lord Indra Temple in Sukumwit Street, Bangkok. 2009. 

22. Lord Indra in Buddhism

Prof Shashi Bala, Dean, K M Munshi Centre of Indology, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, New Delhi wrote, “Why Lord Indra, a Vedic deity was taken into the fold of Buddhism, was never a question in the minds of the Buddhists all over Asia. It was the philosophy of transcendence in life that lays behind it.”

“Indra is present in Buddhist art in several forms in Asian countries. He has been worshipped in Nepal, China, Manchuria, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Tibet and even in Central Asia by the Uighurs. He has been painted, sculpted, and drawn for over more than a millennium. His statues and paintings can be found in the Yunkang caves, the Guge thangkas, Japanese scrolls, Mongolian and Tibetan xylographs.”

23. Why did Buddhism vanish from India?

There were nine reasons why Buddhism vanished from India the key ones being destruction of monasteries in Bengal and Bihar by foreign invaders. Dr B R Ambedkar addressed delegates of Young Men’s Buddhist Association in May 1950 at Colombo on ‘Rise & fall of Buddhism in India’ and said (excerpts), “Buddhism in its material form had disappeared. I agree. But as a spiritual force it still exists.” To read full article

At the 1893 Parliament of Religions Chicago Swami Vivekananda said, “The relation between Hinduism (by Hinduism, I mean the religion of the Vedas) and what is called Buddhism at the present day is nearly the same between Judaism & Christianity. Jesus Christ was a Jew, and Shakya Muni as a Hindu, The Jews rejected Jesus Christ, nay, crucified him, and the Hindus have accepted Shakya Muni as God and worship him. But the real difference that we Hindus want to show between modern Buddhism and what we should understand as teachings of Lord Buddha lies principally in this: Shakya Muni came to preach nothing new.”

Prof Padmanabh Jaini in his Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies has made an excellent study on the reasons for Survival of Jainism and Disappearance of Buddhism in India. Read page 140.

Notwithstanding the above Buddhist Caves at Ellora stood side by side alongside the Hindu and Jain ones for centuries and to this day. “In modern Balinese theology Buddha is regarded as a younger brother of Siva.” 6A Pg. 402

Between 750-1000 A.D. Buddha was declared as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. His painting is found in Brihadesvara Temple, Thanjavur and sculpture in Rani-ki-vav, Patan, Gujarat.

Errors if any are unintentional. As always, I am happy to stand corrected. Love.

To read all articles on Buddha Vakhya

Also read

1. History and Culture of Indian People Volume 2.

2. Introduction to Buddhism by Amit Narwade, a PHD scholar, Somaiya Vidyavihar University, Mumbai.

3. Album Sarnath

4. Album Bodh Gaya  

5. History and Culture of Indian People Volume 3.

6. History and Culture of Indian People Volume 4.

6A. History and Culture of Indian People Volume 5.

7. Who built Sanchi Stupa  

8. Atishi journey from Bengal to Tibet via Sumatra

8. Kumarajiva a great Buddhist Master – from Kashmir lived 5^th century A.D.

9. Lord Indra in Buddhism

10. Are Ambedkarites Buddhist

11. Why did Buddhism vanish from India

12. Hindu deities worshipped in Japan

13. Harmonious blend of Hinduism, Buddhism, Shinto strains in Japan

14. How Hindu, Buddhist strains are intertwined in Thailand, Japan and Cambodia

15. Samkhya and Buddhism

16. Vajrayana Buddhism core tenets based on SAIVA SAKTA Philosophy

17. Theravada Buddhism as an Iteration of Classical Hindu Ascetic Praxis

18. Lord INDRA in Buddhism

19. Dalai Lama explaining Tantra in Buddhism – “His Holiness clarified that while the First Turning of the Wheel of Dharma dealt with the Four Noble Truths, teachings given in public, for which there is a historical record, the Second Turning deals with the Perfection of Wisdom teachings. The Third Turning deals with Buddha nature and the clear light nature of the mind and how to use it. This is the basis of the practice of secret mantra. He explained that the Second and Third Turnings did not take place in public but before a more select gathering of disciples.”

20. What is common to the Dhammapada and Bhagavad Gita